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scheduling each step of production to keeping track of partsinventories and tool use. Automation has also had an influence on areas of theeconomy other than manufacturing. Small computers are used insystems called word processors, which are rapidly becoming astandard part of the modern office. This technology combines asmall computer with a cathode-ray display screen, a typewriterkeyboard, and a printer. It is used to edit texts, to type form letterstailored to the recipient and to manipulate mailing lists and otherdata. The system is capable of performing many other tasks thatincrease office productivity.Automation in Industry Many industries are highly automated or use automationtechnology in some part of their operation. In communicationsand especially in the telephone industry, dialing, transmission, andbilling are all done automatically. Railroads too are controlled byautomatic signaling devices, which have sensors that detect carspassing a particular point. In this way the movement and locationof trains can be monitored. Not all industries require the same degree of automation. Agriculture, sales, and some service industries are difficult toautomate. The agriculture industry may become more mechanized,especially in the processing and packaging of foods; however, inmany service industries such as supermarkets, for example, acheckout counter may be automated and the shelves or supply binsmust still be stocked by hand. Similarly, doctors may consult acomputer to assist in diagnosis, but they must make the final decision and prescribe therapy. The concept of automation is evolving rapidly, partlybecause the applications of automation techniques vary bothwithin a plant or industry and also between industries. The oil andchemical industries, for example, have developed thecontinuous-flow method of production, owing to the nature of theraw materials used. In a refinery, crude oil enters at one point andflows continuously through pipes in cracking, distillation, andreaction devices as it is being processed into such products asgasoline and fuel oil. An array of automatic-control devicesgoverned by microprocessors and coordinated by a centralcomputer is used to control valves, heaters, and other equipment,thereby regulating both the flow and reaction rates. In the steel, beverage, and canned food industries, on theother hand, some of the products are produced in batches. Forexample, a steel furnace is charged (loaded with the ingredients),brought up to heat, and a batch of steel ingots produced. In thisphase very little automation is evident. These ingots, however,may then be processed automatically into sheet or structuralshapes by being squeezed through a series of rollers until thedesired shape is achieved. The automobile and other consumer product industries usethe mass production techniques of step-by-step manufacture andassembly. This technique approximates the continuous-flowconcept but involves transfer machines; thus, from the point ofview of the auto industry, transfer machines are essential to thedefinition of automation. Each of these industries uses automated machines in all orpart of its manufacturing processes. As a result, each industry hasa concept of automation that fits its particular production needs.More examples can be found in almost every phase of commerce.The widespread use of automation and its influence on daily lifeprovides the basis for the concern expressed by many about theinfluence of automation on society and the individual. Automation and Society Automation has made a major contribution toward increasesin both free time and real wages enjoyed by most workers inindustrialized nations. Automation has greatly increased production and lowered costs, thereby making automobiles,refrigerators, televisions, telephones, and other goods available tomore people. It has allowed production and wages to increase, andat the same time the work week has decreased in most Westerncountries from 60 to 40 hours.Employment Not all the results of automation have been positive,however. Some commentators argue that automation has causedoverproduction and waste, that it has created alienation amongworkers, and that it generates unemployment. Of these issues, therelationship between automation and unemployment has receivedthe most attention. Employers and some economists argue thatautomation has little if any effect on unemployment-that workersare displaced rather than dismissed and are usually employed inanother position within the same company or in the same positionat another company that has not automated. Some claim that automation generates more jobs than itdisplaces. They point out that although some laborers may becomeunemployed, the industry producing the automated machinerygenerates more jobs than were eliminated. The computer industryis often cited to illustrate this claim. Business executives wouldagree that although the computer has replaced many workers, theindustry itself has generated more jobs in the manufacturing,sales, and maintenance of computers than the device haseliminated. On the other hand, some labor leaders and economists arguethat automation causes unemployment and, if left unchecked, willbreed a vast army of unemployed that could disrupt the entireeconomy. They contend that growth in government-generated jobsand in service industries has absorbed those who becameunemployed due to automation, and that as soon as these areasbecome saturated or the programs reduced, the true relationshipbetween automation and unemployment will become known.Automation and the Individual The effect of automation on the individual has been moredrastic. The worker is either displaced or unemployed. Workerswho remain must operate or maintain technologically advancedmachines, and they may also be required to monitor more of theplant operation and to make on-the-spot decisions. Thus, theeducation and experience levels of these workers are considerablyabove those of the workers who