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Theoretical phonetics

    speech sound as a physical and physiological phenomenon

Sounds created by the speaker shows his/her personality, which includes: age, nationality, education, physiological and emotional state, social status, sex, etc., e.g. Eliza Doolitle and Professor Higgins in B.Shaw's "Pygmalion". Each SPEECH SOUND has a complex nature and can be analyzed from the point of view of 4 DIFFERENT ASPECTS: 1. physical (acoustic) aspects (frequency (частота), pitch (высота тона голоса), intensity/force, duration) – studied by Physiological Phonetics; 2. auditory aspects (periodical (music and speech) and non-periodical (noise))– studied by Physiological Phonetics; 3. articulatory aspects – studied by Articulatory Phonetics; 4. linguistic (functional) aspects - studied by Functional or Phonological Phonetics.

Acoustically speech sound is a physical phenomenon produced by the vibration of the vocal cords and perceived by ear due to the vibration of the layers of air - 15 - which occur at the rate of 16-20 thousand times per second, that is the limit of human hearing. Sounds have the following PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: 1. Frequency (частота)- is the number of vibration per second. The greater the frequency, the higher the pitch. Frequency is measured in hertz or cycles per second. 2. Pitch (высота голосового тона) - is the degree of highness or lowness varying with the number of vibrations of a note; perception of the frequency of repeated pressure on the ear-drum. The pitch rises with the increase of the vocal cords tension and the frequency increases as well. The pitch of the man's voice is lower than that of the woman's because his vocal cords are longer and thicker. Pitch component (мелодический компонент тона голоса) has a certain - level (уровень высоты (частотная характеристика голоса, напр., высокий, низкий); - movement (движение ( напр., вверх в конце вопросов, вниз в приказах); - range (диапазон частот голоса, высотный интервал, объем высотных изменений голоса на протяжении отрезка речи). 3. Intensity/Force (интенсивность, напряженность звука) depends on increase of air pressure on organs of speech. They become more tense and produce more intense and louder sounds. Combination of air pressure and tension (напряженность) of organs of speech results in greater pressure on ear-drums and you can hear the sound better. Intensity is measured in decibels (dbs). 4. Duration - length or quantity of time during which the same vibratory motion, the same patterns of vibration are maintained. It is measured in milliseconds.

For breathing and speaking people need some power. There are 4 physiological mechanisms that take part in the production of each sound: 1. the POWER MECHANISM (the diaphragm, the glottis (голосовая щель); the lungs, the larynx- (гортань) (with the vocal cords), the bronchi [brPNkai] , the pharynx (глотка), the windpipe = trachea [trq`ki:q], the mouth and the nasal cavities; 2. the VIBRATOR MECHANISM (the vocal cords in the larynx); 3. the RESONATOR MECHANISM (the pharynx, the larynx, the mouth, the nasal cavity); 4. the OBSTRUCTER MECHANISM to produce consonants (the tongue, the lips, the teeth, the soft palate with the uvula, the hard palate with the alveolar ridge). Let’s make two comments. The vibrator mechanism is the voice producing mechanism and consists of the vocal cords that are situated in the larynx. Vocal cords may be opened and closed(completely and incompletely). The pitch of the voice is controlled by the tension ofthe vocal cords. When the air from the lungs comes to the larynx, the vocal cordsvibrate and then produce different combinations of sounds: • pure musical sounds - vowels (when the vocal cords are drawn together); • sounds where voice prevails over noise - sonants or sonorants = semivowels; • sounds where noise prevails over voice - voiced consonants; • sounds that have only noise and no voice because the vocal cords are taken apart and do not vibrate - voiceless consonants; • when both parts of the glottis are closed firmly, the sound which is produced at separating them is called the glottal stop ( твердый приступ). It's one of the most typical mistakes of Russian/Ukrainian learners of English. Glottal stop is characteristic of our languages, but is not observed in standard British pronunciation where practically all the words in the sentence are linked together. (e.g. Any noise annoys an oyster but a noisy noise annoys an oyster most.) The obstructer mechanism is used only in the production of consonant sounds, because vowels are produced with the vocal cords drawn together and without any obstruction to the air stream. Obstructions may be made by: • the tongue - the tip with the blades; the front part; the middle part; the back part; the root of the tongue; - • the lips - top and bottom (upper/lower); • the teeth - top and bottom (upper/lower); • the soft palate with the uvula; • the hard palate with the alveolar ridge ( alveoli/teeth ridge) To sum it up we may say that voice is produced after a command is given by the brain and the air pushed up under the pressure from the lungs and bronchi finds resistance of the closed vocal cords. The air stream makes them vibrate and as a result appears a sound. It however is not of full value because it is too weak and primitive. It takes its intensity and beauty when it goes to resonators either to high ones – mouth and nose or to bottom ones in the chest cavity - the larynx and the pharynx.

    the nature of phoneme and its function. Phoneme theory

Speech


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