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Counselling Theories Essay, Research Paper

This essay will critique the efficacy of Psychodynamic and Cognitive-Behavioural counselling approaches, in particular as they apply to a specific case scenario. Both approaches will be defined and explained, and a brief expose of their relative antecedents will clarify the respective locations of each in the broad spectrum of counselling theories. Conceptual elements and therapeutic strengths pertinent to the scenario will be identified, and the limitations of each approach will be highlighted, along with the need for racial, cultural, religious and gender sensitivity on the part of the counsellor. Examples of practical techniques will be explored to illustrate the therapeutic effectiveness and expected outcomes of each model. Finally, it will be demonstrated that both the psychodynamic and cognitive-behavioural counselling theories, in the hands of trained, professional helpers, occupy important roles in the spectrum of counselling philosophies.

An irrefutable element in contemporary psychological and counselling practices is the seminal work of Sigmund Freud, who originally conceptualised the notion of the unconscious and its effect on human behaviour (Kovel 1987: 96-98). A core principle in Freud s theories espoused that unpleasant or traumatic childhood experiences – if suppressed in the unconscious and denied by means of defence mechanisms – could subsequently surface as inexplicable thoughts or behaviours in adult life (Geldard 1998: 12-13). Corey (1991: 96-99) succinctly describes the three systems that make up the structure of personality as the biological (id), psychological (ego), and social (super-ego), and that ego defence mechanisms whilst having the potential to warp reality, are normal processes operating on an unconscious level to protect the ego from being overwhelmed .

Psychodynamic therapy, whilst firmly established in Freud s original concepts of psychoanalysis, explores the dynamic nature of the anxiety caused by conflict between the id, ego and superego (McLeod 1998: 32-33). Specific techniques include free association and resistance interpretation – encouraging the client to say whatever freely comes to mind and analysing areas of defensiveness; dream analysis – dreams seen as uncensored thoughts from the unconscious; and transference – allowing the client to project feelings onto the therapist.

Burgeoning from the classical psychoanalytical school are two philosophies conceived in the latter part of the twentieth century known as Object Relations and Attachment Theories. Corey (1991: 111-114) explains that Freud applied the word object to define any person or thing embraced, usually by a child, as the target of feelings or drives . Melanie Klein developed the Object Relations Theory as an extension of this original hypothesis. The theory describes the enigma precipitated by the child s need to direct all emotions at one object usually the mother or primary caregiver and its inability to integrate the simultaneous concepts of love and hate. Klein suggests that this inability to tolerate ambivalent feelings for the one object person may bring about underdeveloped personalities in adulthood (Avery 1996:26-27). D.W. Winnicott added another dimension by introducing the notion of good enough mothering whereby a good enough mother will gradually let her child down to encourage independence, understanding of individuality and healthy object relations. If the process is hurried or degraded the child can create a false self to protect its true self from further distress (Avery: 27-28).

Attachment Theory (or self-psychology), espoused by John Bowlby to oppose those of Melanie Klein, demonstrates that in order for adults to maintain acceptable social and personal attachments they must first have forged secure attachments with their primary caregivers in childhood (Ivey, Ivey & Simek-Morgan 1993: 172-173). This innate need for positive attachments and a secure base , if unsatisfied, will result in lack of trust and the inability to eventually form sound, intimate relationships (McLeod: 51-52). Bowlby s work was corroborated by empirical studies conducted with and by Mary Ainsworth in which it was shown that infants demonstrate varying degrees of anxiety when deprived of the company of their parent (Ivey & al: 174; Howe 1995:68-69). In summary, the psychodynamic approach is a broadly based perspective, which extrapolates Freud s original hypotheses and seeks to facilitate client insight by understanding the impact of childhood experiences and defence constructs suppressed in the unconscious.

The psychodynamic technique of free association would be particularly useful in counselling the case study client. As she presents with anxiety apparently brought about by conflict, feeling free to say whatever is on her mind may allow a previous unpleasant experience that has been repressed to be recalled and dealt with in the conscious mind (Corey 1991: 120-121). For example, it is probable that as a child the client was witness to or even a victim of atrocities in her war-torn homeland. If so, it is possible that these horrific confrontations have been suppressed and that as a result, interpersonal conflict of any kind now causes extraordinary levels of anxiety. Similarly, if these traumatising acts were perpetrated by military or other authoritative men, she would possibly be projecting or transferring the images of her childhood onto the personas of all males, particularly those in a position of authority. Assuming this scenario to be true, the stages of free association would have the client focus on a current concern (the conflict at her work); to describe and physically locate the emotions and feelings surrounding that problem (anger, frustration, helplessness, abuse, fear); to recall a time early in life when similar feelings and emotions were experienced (childhood

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