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Research Methods In Politics Essay, Research Paper

Research Methods in Politics.

Can we ?generalize? from empirical data?

A 300 word short essay, for MA international politics.According to a widely accepted view, empirical sciences can be characterized by the fact they use ?inductive methods?. Empirical science emphasizes the role of experience in human knowledge: that all concepts are derived from the experience to which they are applied, ultimately all knowledge of matters of fact is based on, or derived from experience. Accordingly all knowledge of the world can be justified only by experience. This however undermines the role of reasoning in human knowledge. Empiricism argues that knowledge derived from a priori reasoning either does not exist or is confined to ?analytical? truths, which have no content, deriving their validity merely from the meaning of the words used to express them.According to Popper, ?a scientist, whether theorist or experimenter, puts forward statements, or systems of statements, and tests them step by step?, but ?in the field of empirical sciences, more particularly, he constructs hypotheses, or systems of theories, and tests them against experience by observation and experiment. According to this method, the logic of scientific discovery would be identical with inductive logic. An inference can be referred to as ?inductive? if it passes from singular statements to universal statements. Popper sighted induction as a problem in the empirical sciences, he argues that, ?from a logical point of view, we are justified in inferring universal statements from singular ones no matter how numerous; for any conclusion done in this way may always turn out to be false: he gives a simple illustration by saying that, ?no matter how many instances of white swans we may have observed, this does not justify the conclusion that all swans are white.In Poppers view, ?generalizing? from empirical data or making inductive inferences ?is superfluous, and that it must lead to logical inconsistencies. He also argues that ?people who say of a universal statement that we know is truth from experience usually mean that truth of this universal statement can be reduced to truth of singular ones since the account of an experience or observation is in the first place can only be a singular statement. In Poppers view, the various difficulties of inductive logic are numerous and he stands to oppose all attempts to operate with the ideas of inductive logic or ?generalizing? from empirical data. However, Popper attempted to develop a theory of ?the deductive method of testing, this view asserts that ?a hypothesis can only be empirically tested ? and only after it has been advanced.

References,Popper, Karl. The Logic of Scientific Discovery, 1959, London.Popper, Karl. Realism and the aim of science, 1982, London.Climatic wind tunnels for vehiclesContents-Abstract-Introduction1.Full ? scale and model scale climatic wind tunnels2.Design feature3.Boundary layer simulation4.Rain simulation5.Cryogenic application6.Fan position7.Cooling8.Conclusion

AbstractIn recent years several development works has been done to achieve the aerodynamic qualities and thermal characteristics of vehicles. The wind tunnel is an essential development tool, with which reality is simulated. The literature survey on the climatic wind tunnels is to give an account of what is an available and current trend. And to discus how the climatic conditions are generated included cryogenic application, also to specify whether, the tunnel is full ? scale or model scale. Also to describe the design features of climatic wind tunnels.The survey shows that, the full ? scale climatic wind tunnel is the most common scale in the new automotive tests. Also the survey presented an examples of the latest climatic wind tunnel with its design features. The cost of climatic wind tunnels facilities is comparatively high with others types of wind tunnels, but some of some of these tunnels could be used as an all ? purpose system so that the investment cost and operation cost will be lower while flexibility is much higher. Most of the designers prefer to work on full ? size cars in the automotive tests because judging the shape of scale models is very difficult and uncertain.IntroductionThe wind tunnel is an indoor facility where the subject body (either a scale or full ? size model) is stationary and the air moves instead. The climatic wind tunnel is designed for testing vehicle thermal systems under climatic operating condition. More over it is used to optimize systems performance and ensure complete thermal comfort for vehicle occupants. Some of the new climatic wind tunnels have environmental research facility that could provide the open road simulation of temperature, humidity, solar, wind and dynamic road load conditions. (hucho, 1987).

In the new climatic wind tunnel the test applications and capabilities have increased, the test applications include:?Air conditioning systems

?Engine cooling systems

?Window defrost / defog / demits systems

?Heater systems

?Passenger cabin ventilation

?Under body temperature effects

?Engine management system developmentThe aim of the literature survey is to produce an account of what are available and current trends in climatic wind tunnels, including cryogenic applications (below 0?c). It is also to specify whether the tunnel is full ? scale or model scale, as well as, to describe how the climatic conditions are generated. And to discus the design features.Full ? scale and model scale climatic wind tunnelsIn the automotive research, engineers use two types of wind tunnels; model scale wind tunnels for testing scale model automobiles and full ? scale wind tunnels for testing cars or small trucks. The first type is mostly used for drag tests, while the full ? scale wind tunnel could be used as an all ?

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