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Firm Specificity

Low High

Industry Specificity

Low High

I II III

Low Meta- Industry Intra-organization

Competencies competencies competencies

Task

Specificity

High IV V VI

Standard Technical Unique

Technical Trade Competencies

Competencies Competencies

Figure 2. A Competence Typology (Nordhaug, 1993)

I. Meta-Competencies: This type is firm non-specific, industry nonspecific and can be utilized in performing a variety of tasks. This is called meta- competencies and includes general competencies such as, literacy, learning capability, analytical ability, creativity, ability to tolerate and master ambiguity, ability to communicate, ability to cooperate with others, ability to deal with change etc. These are basically conceptual and human relation skills. These competencies incorporate skills to deal with people, ideas and symbols, and complex problems.

II. Industry Competencies: This category represents low task specificity, low firm specificity and high industry specificity. This may be broadly referred to industry familiarity. This set of competence can be used in specific industry across tasks and firms. Industry competencies may include:

- familiarity with the history of business

- knowledge about industry structure

- knowledge about current development of the industry

- ability to analyze the operations and strategies of competitions

- knowledge about key persons, networks and alliances in the industry

- capability to form cooperative ventures and alliances with other companies in the industry

III. Intra-organizational competencies: This set depicts low task and high firm specificity. They constitute firm specified meta-competencies or internal meta-competencies in an organization, it has been named as intra-organizational competence. It may include: knowledge about organizational culture such as history, norms, ethical standards; communication channels, informal networks and alliances, familiarity with political dynamics of the organization, knowledge about firms strategy and goals.

IV. Standard Technical Competencies: This set of competencies called standard technical and includes high task specificity, low firm specificity and low industry specificity. They are quite similar to technical skills of Katz’s (1974) classification. The only improvement over Katz is that technical competences have been classified here into 3 distinct categories: standard technical competencies, technical trade skills, and unique competencies.

Standard technical skills include: typing and stenographic skills, knowledge of generic budgeting and accounting principles and methods, computer skills, craft and other technical skills that can be applied across industries.

V. Technical Trade Competencies: These types of competencies are task specific, industry specific and firm non-specific. These competencies are useful within the industry on few selected tasks. The examples of these include skills in building automotive vehicles, skills in assembling computer hardware etc.

VI. Unique competencies : This set includes highly firm specific, task specific and hence is called unique competencies. These competencies apply to one task within one firm only and include knowledge and skills related to operation of unique technology, for example, skills related to use of specialized tools. Knowledge of devices specially developed within firm; skills in repairing tailored technology; skills of maintaining organizationally ideosyncratic routines and procedure.

Competence – Performance Linkage:

On the basis of available literature Campbell and Pritchard (1976) proposed following expression for predicting performance.

Performance = f (aptitude X skill X understanding of the task

X choice to extend effort X choice of degree

of effort X choice to persist X facilities and

inhibiting conditions not under the control

of the individual)

Here aptitude, skill, and understanding of the task are cognitive factors and can be considered the components of ability or competence; choice to expand effort, choice of degree effort, and choice to persist are the components of motivation. What used to be overlooked is the contextual factor beyond the control of person?

These facilitating and inhibiting conditions of work are also very important in actual accomplishment of performance. The formula also suggests that other things being constant competence would be positively related with performance. The formula also makes it clear that competence is necessary but not the sufficient condition for performance. Individual may be highly competent and motivated but (s) he is not provided with the opportunity to perform; working conditions are crippling and resources are insufficient, the performance may be very low or disappointing.

Competence Building:

Core to the competence building is learning. Learning can be planned and formal, and it can be unplanned and informal. Organizations use a variety of methods to enhance learning of their members with the expectations of enhancing competence. These include job training, management development programmes, apprenticeship programmes, mentoring and coaching programmes, seminars, conferences, internal consultations etc. We have tried to link various types of competence with methods of competence building (Table 2).

(a) Mentoring

Mentoring is a process where one wiser and more experienced person assists another person to grow and learn. The term ‘mentor’ is derived from Greek mythology. While Odysseus was fighting the

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